Last reviewed 22 Sept 2026 · 4 min read
The Europeans
Portuguese (Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in 1498), Dutch, English (East India Company chartered in 1600), Danish and French (1664). The Carnatic wars settled the Anglo-French contest in favour of the English.
Two battles made the Company a territorial power:
- Plassey, 1757 — Robert Clive defeated Siraj-ud-Daulah of Bengal.
- Buxar, 1764 — victory over the combined forces of Mir Qasim, Shuja-ud-Daulah and Shah Alam II, after which the Diwani of Bengal, Bihar and Orissa (1765) gave the Company revenue rights.
From Company to Crown
| Act | Year | Main provision |
|---|---|---|
| Regulating Act | 1773 | Governor-General of Bengal; Supreme Court at Calcutta |
| Pitt's India Act | 1784 | Board of Control — dual government |
| Charter Act | 1813 | Company's trade monopoly ended except for tea and China |
| Charter Act | 1833 | Governor-General of India; law member |
| Charter Act | 1853 | open competition for the civil service |
| Government of India Act | 1858 | Crown rule; Secretary of State for India |
| Indian Councils Act | 1861 | Indians nominated to the legislative council |
| Indian Councils Act | 1909 | Morley-Minto reforms; separate electorates |
| Government of India Act | 1919 | Montagu-Chelmsford; dyarchy in provinces |
| Government of India Act | 1935 | provincial autonomy; federal scheme; Reserve Bank |
Land revenue settlements
- Permanent Settlement (1793, Cornwallis) — Bengal, Bihar, Orissa; zamindars made proprietors with a fixed demand.
- Ryotwari (Munro, Read) — Madras and Bombay; settlement directly with the cultivator, revisable.
- Mahalwari (Holt Mackenzie) — North-Western Provinces and Punjab; settlement with the village community.
All three raised the demand in cash, which pushed cultivators towards moneylenders and commercial crops.
Wars of expansion
- Anglo-Mysore wars (1767–1799): ended with Tipu Sultan's death at Seringapatam.
- Anglo-Maratha wars (1775–1818): ended Maratha power; Peshwa pensioned off.
- Anglo-Sikh wars (1845–49): annexation of Punjab.
- Subsidiary Alliance (Wellesley) and the Doctrine of Lapse (Dalhousie) absorbed states without war — Satara, Jhansi, Nagpur, and Awadh on grounds of misgovernment in 1856.