Last reviewed 22 Sept 2026 · 4 min read
Location and extent
India lies between about 8°4′ N and 37°6′ N and 68°7′ E and 97°25′ E. The Tropic of Cancer passes through eight states: Gujarat, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Tripura and Mizoram.
Land neighbours: Pakistan, Afghanistan, China, Nepal, Bhutan, Myanmar and Bangladesh. Maritime neighbours include Sri Lanka and the Maldives. The Radcliffe Line faces Pakistan, the McMahon Line faces China in the east, and the Durand Line is the Afghanistan-Pakistan boundary.
Six physical divisions
- The Himalayas — three parallel ranges: Himadri (Greater, with the highest peaks), Himachal (Lesser, with Pir Panjal, Dhauladhar and the valleys of Kashmir and Kullu) and Shiwaliks (Outer, with duns such as Dehradun).
- The Northern Plains — built of alluvium: Bhabar (porous gravel at the foothills), Terai (marshy), Bhangar (older alluvium) and Khadar (newer, renewed each flood).
- The Peninsular Plateau — the Central Highlands north of the Narmada and the Deccan Plateau south of it, with the Aravallis, Vindhyas, Satpuras and the black soil of the Deccan Traps.
- The Coastal Plains — a wide eastern plain with deltas, and a narrow western plain with lagoons and backwaters.
- The Thar Desert — western Rajasthan, with the seasonal Luni.
- The Islands — Andaman and Nicobar (volcanic and tectonic, with India's only active volcano on Barren Island) and Lakshadweep (coral).
Peaks and passes: Kanchenjunga (Sikkim) is the highest peak within India; Nanda Devi (Uttarakhand), Nanga Parbat and K2 lie in the wider Himalayan system. Passes: Zoji La, Banihal, Rohtang, Shipki La, Nathu La, Bomdi La.
Rivers
| Himalayan rivers | Peninsular rivers | |
|---|---|---|
| Source | snow and glaciers | rainfall |
| Flow | perennial | seasonal |
| Valley | deep gorges, wide meanders in the plains | shallow, well-graded |
| Deltas | large (Ganga-Brahmaputra) | large on the east coast; estuaries on the west |
| Examples | Indus, Ganga, Brahmaputra | Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, Mahanadi, Narmada, Tapi |
The Indus system
Rises near Mansarovar; tributaries Jhelum, Chenab, Ravi, Beas and Sutlej. Under the Indus Waters Treaty (1960) India has unrestricted use of the eastern rivers — Ravi, Beas and Sutlej.
The Ganga system
The Ganga rises as the Bhagirathi from the Gangotri glacier and is joined by the Alaknanda at Devprayag. Left-bank tributaries: Ghaghara, Gandak, Kosi (the "sorrow of Bihar"). Right-bank: Yamuna (from Yamunotri), Son. The Yamuna receives the Chambal, Betwa and Ken. The Ganga and Brahmaputra together form the Sundarbans delta, the world's largest.
The Brahmaputra
Rises in Tibet as the Tsangpo, enters India in Arunachal Pradesh as the Dihang, and is joined by the Dibang and Lohit. It carries a huge silt load and braids across Assam, where Majuli is among the largest river islands.
Peninsular rivers
- East-flowing into the Bay of Bengal, with deltas: Mahanadi, Godavari (the largest peninsular river, "Dakshin Ganga"), Krishna, Kaveri.
- West-flowing into the Arabian Sea, through rift valleys and ending in estuaries: Narmada (Amarkantak) and Tapi.