Chapter 1 of 4

Verbal Aptitude

In the GATE Civil syllabus under General Aptitude · 6 parts

Parts of Speech & Essential Grammar · Tenses · Reading Comprehension · Idioms & Phrases · Synonyms & Antonyms · Para Jumbles & Paragraph Completion

CIVILGYAN TEST SERIES · civilgyantests.com — free study notes for civil engineering exams

📑 Contents (53 sections)

Part 1 of 6

Parts of Speech & Essential Grammar

Last reviewed 30 Sept 2026 · 10 min read

Why parts of speech matter

Every word in a sentence does a job. The job decides the word's part of speech. Almost every grammar question in a competitive exam — error spotting, fill in the blanks, sentence improvement — is really a question about which part of speech should sit in which place. If you can name the job of each word, most errors become visible.

The same word can do different jobs:

Light is a noun in "the light is on", an adjective in "a light bag", and a verb in "light the lamp".
Round is a preposition in "round the corner", an adverb in "he turned round", and an adjective in "a round table".

So always decide by how the word is used in the sentence, not by how it looks.

The eight parts of speech

Part	Job	Example
Noun	Names a person, place, thing or idea	Ravi, Delhi, bridge, honesty
Pronoun	Stands in place of a noun	he, they, which, myself
Adjective	Describes a noun or pronoun	tall building, three engineers
Verb	Shows action, state or happening	build, is, seems
Adverb	Describes a verb, adjective or another adverb	works carefully, very strong
Preposition	Shows the relation of a noun to another word	on the table, by road
Conjunction	Joins words, phrases or clauses	and, but, because
Interjection	Expresses sudden feeling	Alas!, Wow!

Noun

Kinds of noun

Proper noun — the name of a particular person or place, written with a capital: Ganga, Satish.
Common noun — a name shared by a class: river, engineer.
Collective noun — a group treated as one: committee, team, jury, fleet.
Material noun — a substance: steel, cement, water.
Abstract noun — a quality, state or action: courage, poverty, departure.

Countable and uncountable

Countable nouns have a plural and take a/an, many, few: a bridge, many bridges. Uncountable nouns have no plural and take much, little: information, advice, furniture, luggage, equipment, knowledge, news, scenery, work, progress, evidence. So we say "a piece of advice", never "an advice" or "advices".

Common MistakeUncountable nouns are singular

✗ The informations are useful. → ✓ The information is useful. ✗ He gave me many advices. → ✓ He gave me much advice / many pieces of advice.

Number and gender

Regular plural: add -s/-es (box → boxes); -y after a consonant becomes -ies (city → cities); some -f/-fe words become -ves (knife → knives, leaf → leaves).
Irregular: man → men, child → children, tooth → teeth, mouse → mice, foot → feet.
Same in singular and plural: sheep, deer, fish, series, species.
Always plural in form: scissors, trousers, spectacles, clothes, thanks, riches.
Singular in form but meaning a subject: mathematics, physics, economics, news, measles — take singular verbs.
Compound nouns pluralise the main word: brother-in-law → brothers-in-law, passer-by → passers-by.
Gender: masculine, feminine, neuter and common (student, teacher, doctor).

Possessive

Add 's to singular nouns (the engineer's plan) and to plural nouns not ending in -s (men's, children's). Plural nouns ending in -s take only the apostrophe (the engineers' union). For things, prefer of: the door of the room, not "the room's door".

Pronoun

Kind	Words
Personal (subject)	I, we, you, he, she, it, they
Personal (object)	me, us, you, him, her, it, them
Possessive	mine, ours, yours, his, hers, theirs (used without a noun)
Possessive adjective	my, our, your, his, her, its, their (used with a noun)
Reflexive / emphatic	myself, ourselves, yourself, himself, themselves, itself
Demonstrative	this, that, these, those
Interrogative	who, whom, whose, which, what
Relative	who, whom, whose, which, that
Indefinite	some, any, one, none, each, either, neither, everyone, somebody
Reciprocal	each other (two), one another (more than two)

Rules that are tested

Case: subject form for the doer (She and I went), object form after a verb or preposition (between you and me, not "between you and I"; let him go).
Agreement: the pronoun agrees with its noun in number, person and gender: Each of the boys did his work. Everyone must bring his or her (or their) pass.
Order of persons: in a good sentence the order is 2nd, 3rd, 1st (You, he and I) for happy statements; for a fault or blame it is 1st, 2nd, 3rd (I, you and he are to blame).
Who / whom: who is the subject, whom the object: The man whom we met is an engineer.
That vs which: that introduces a restricting clause and is used after all, only, superlatives, and both persons and things (This is the best that I can do); which is used for a non-restricting clause with a comma.
Reflexive pronoun is never used as a subject: ✗ Myself will go. → ✓ I myself will go.
Each other for two, one another for more than two.

Part 2 of 6

Tenses

Last reviewed 30 Sept 2026 · 8 min read

What is a tense?

A tense shows when an action happens and how it happens (once, continuing, completed). English has three times — present, past and future — and four aspects — simple, continuous, perfect and perfect continuous — giving twelve tenses.

	Present	Past	Future
Simple	He works.	He worked.	He will work.
Continuous	He is working.	He was working.	He will be working.
Perfect	He has worked.	He had worked.	He will have worked.
Perfect continuous	He has been working.	He had been working.	He will have been working.

Present tenses

Simple present — V1 (s/es for he, she, it)

Uses:

Habits and routines: He goes for a walk every morning.
General truths and scientific facts: Water boils at 100 °C. The earth moves round the sun.
Fixed timetables and schedules (near future): The train leaves at 6.
Statements of state with verbs of thinking, feeling, possession: I know the answer. She loves music.
Instructions and commentary: Take the first left.
Future in time/condition clauses: If it rains, we will stay home. (not will rain)

Markers: always, usually, often, sometimes, never, every day, seldom, generally.

Present continuous — am/is/are + V-ing

An action happening now: He is writing a letter.
A temporary situation: I am staying with a friend this week.
A planned future action: We are leaving tomorrow.
Irritating habits with always: He is always complaining.
Changing situations: Prices are rising.

Markers: now, at present, at the moment, currently, today, this week.

Present perfect — has/have + V3

An action completed at an unspecified time in the past, with present relevance: I have finished my work.
An action that began in the past and continues (with since/for): He has lived here since 2015.
Life experience: Have you ever visited Goa?
A recent action: The train has just arrived.

Markers: already, yet, just, ever, never, since, for, so far, recently, lately, till now, up to now, this week.

Common MistakePresent perfect and definite past time

The present perfect cannot be used with a definite past time. ✗ I have seen him yesterday. → ✓ I saw him yesterday. ✗ When have you come? → ✓ When did you come? Words like yesterday, last week, in 2020, two days ago, when (a past question), at that time need the simple past.

Present perfect continuous — has/have been + V-ing

An action that started in the past and is still going on (or has just stopped, with visible results), stressing duration: He has been working since morning. It has been raining for three hours.

Past tenses

Simple past — V2

A completed action at a definite past time: He left yesterday.
Past habits: He played cricket daily in his youth. (also used to play)
A series of past actions: He came, saw and left.

Markers: yesterday, ago, last night, in 2010, once, then, when.

Past continuous — was/were + V-ing

An action in progress at a past moment: At 8 last night I was reading.
Interrupted action: I was walking when it began to rain. (long action in past continuous, short action in simple past)
Two simultaneous past actions: While he was cooking, she was reading.

Past perfect — had + V3

The earlier of two past actions: The train had left before I reached the station. Also used for unreal past in conditionals (If he had studied, he would have passed).

Markers: before, after, by the time, when, already, just, hardly ... when, no sooner ... than.

NoteHardly / scarcely / no sooner

Hardly / scarcely + had + S + V3 + when/before + simple past: Hardly had he entered when the bell rang. No sooner + had + S + V3 + than + simple past: No sooner had he left than it rained. Than goes with no sooner; when/before goes with hardly / scarcely.

Past perfect continuous — had been + V-ing

Duration up to a moment in the past: He had been working for five hours when I met him.

Part 3 of 6

Reading Comprehension

Last reviewed 30 Sept 2026 · 7 min read

What reading comprehension tests

A reading comprehension (RC) section gives one or more passages (150–500 words) followed by questions. It tests whether you can understand, interpret and evaluate what you read — not what you already know. The answer is always in the passage (directly or by logical inference); your outside knowledge or opinion is not the basis.

Types of passages

Factual / descriptive: science, history, technology, geography.
Argumentative / opinion: the writer takes a position and defends it.
Narrative: a story or incident.
Analytical / social: economy, environment, education, government policy.

How to read the passage

FormulaA time-efficient reading method

Skim the first and last sentences of each paragraph — these usually give the topic and the direction.
Read the passage once at normal speed, marking the main idea of each paragraph mentally (or with a two-word note).
Notice contrast and turning words (but, however, although, yet, nevertheless, on the contrary) — the writer's real point often follows them.
Notice the writer's tone — approving, critical, neutral, ironic, worried, optimistic.
Then read the questions — and go back to the passage for the specific lines each question refers to.

Exam TipWhich to read first — passage or questions?

Reading the passage first builds understanding of the whole; reading the questions first helps you look for specific facts but can distract. A reliable compromise: skim the passage → read questions → return to the relevant lines.

Question types and how to answer

1. Main idea / central theme / best title

The main idea covers the whole passage, not one paragraph or detail.
Ask: What is the passage mostly about? What single sentence would summarise it?
Wrong options are usually: too narrow (a detail), too broad (goes beyond the passage), opposite (contradicts), or irrelevant.
Title: short, catchy, but accurate to the main idea.

2. Detail (factual) questions

Ask about a specific fact stated in the passage.
Find the keyword in the passage (a name, number, place, term) and read the sentence before and after.
The correct option is often a paraphrase, not the exact wording.
Wrong options may use passage words but twist the meaning.

3. Inference questions

Ask what is implied or can be concluded, though not stated.
Words: infer, imply, suggest, conclude, it can be understood that.
The answer must be strongly supported by the passage, but not directly stated.
Avoid extreme options (always, never, all, only, completely, impossible) unless the passage is equally extreme.

4. Vocabulary in context

Asks the meaning of a word or phrase as used in the passage.
Read the sentence and replace the word with each option to see which fits.
Ignore the most common meaning if it does not fit — the word may be used in a special sense.
Use context clues: synonyms, antonyms, examples, explanation.

5. Tone and attitude of the author

Tone	Signs
Optimistic / hopeful	positive words, "promising", "bright"
Critical / disapproving	"unfortunately", "fails to", "deplorable"
Objective / neutral	facts, numbers, no emotional words
Sarcastic / ironic	saying one thing and meaning the opposite
Worried / cautionary	"risk", "threat", "must be careful"
Nostalgic	recalling the past with affection

6. True / false / "which is NOT stated"

Check each option against the passage.
For "NOT true / EXCEPT" questions, three options are true and one is false — verify each.

7. Purpose / structure questions

Why does the author mention X? How is the passage organised? → Ask what job the example, the quotation or the paragraph does (illustrate, contrast, support, refute).

8. Application / extension

Ask what would most likely follow or how the idea applies to a new situation; base the answer on the logic of the passage.

Part 4 of 6

Idioms & Phrases

Last reviewed 30 Sept 2026 · 14 min read

Idioms — meaning

An idiom is a fixed group of words whose meaning is different from the meanings of the separate words. To kick the bucket has nothing to do with a bucket; it means to die. You cannot work out an idiom word by word; you must learn it as a unit or infer it from the context.

A phrasal verb is a verb + a particle (preposition or adverb) with a special meaning: give up (stop), call off (cancel), look into (investigate).

FormulaAnswering idiom questions

Read the sentence — the context usually shows a positive or negative sense.
Recall the idiom if you know it; otherwise eliminate options that clash with the tone.
Look for image clues (an animal, a body part, a colour) — they often give the flavour (a snake in the grass → hidden danger).
Choose the option that fits the whole sentence, not just one word.

Success, failure and effort

Idiom	Meaning	Example
a piece of cake	very easy	The test was a piece of cake.
to break the ice	to start a conversation, remove awkwardness	He told a joke to break the ice.
to hit the nail on the head	to be exactly right	You hit the nail on the head.
to burn the midnight oil	to work late into the night	She burnt the midnight oil for the exam.
to leave no stone unturned	to try every possible means	The police left no stone unturned.
to come off with flying colours	to succeed brilliantly	He passed with flying colours.
to get cold feet	to lose courage at the last moment	He got cold feet before the interview.
to bite off more than one can chew	to take on too much	She bit off more than she could chew.
to throw in the towel	to give up	After three failures he threw in the towel.
to go the extra mile	to make an additional effort	The team went the extra mile.
back to square one	back to the beginning	The plan failed and we were back to square one.
a blessing in disguise	something good that seemed bad at first	Losing the job was a blessing in disguise.
to fall flat	to fail to have the desired effect	His joke fell flat.
to make hay while the sun shines	to use an opportunity	Make hay while the sun shines.
to strike while the iron is hot	to act at the right moment
to kill two birds with one stone	to achieve two aims with one action
the last straw	the final event that makes a situation unbearable	His rudeness was the last straw.
to turn over a new leaf	to start afresh, change for the better
to rise to the occasion	to deal well with a difficult situation

Difficulty, trouble and ease

Idiom	Meaning
in hot water	in trouble
between the devil and the deep sea	in a difficult situation with two bad choices
a tough nut to crack	a difficult problem or person
an uphill task	a very difficult job
to face the music	to accept the consequences
to be in a fix / in a tight corner	in a difficult position
to be at a loss	not knowing what to do
to be at sixes and sevens	in confusion
a thorn in the flesh	a constant source of trouble
to bear the brunt	to suffer the main force of an attack or problem
a Herculean task	a task needing great strength or effort
a wild goose chase	a useless search
to cut a sorry figure	to look foolish
to sail in the same boat	to be in the same situation
the writing on the wall	a sign of coming trouble

Anger, emotion and behaviour

Idiom	Meaning
to lose one's temper / to fly off the handle	to become suddenly angry
to see red	to become very angry
to be up in arms	to protest strongly
to pour cold water on	to discourage
to cry over spilt milk	to regret what cannot be changed
to be on cloud nine	very happy
to be over the moon	delighted
to be down in the dumps	sad, depressed
to keep a stiff upper lip	to stay calm in difficulty
to eat humble pie	to apologise humbly
to add insult to injury	to make a bad situation worse
to bury the hatchet	to make peace
to have a chip on the shoulder	to feel resentful or aggrieved
to blow one's own trumpet	to boast
to have a heart of gold	to be very kind
to be in seventh heaven	extremely happy
to shed crocodile tears	to show false sorrow
to turn a blind eye	to ignore deliberately
to be on the fence	to be undecided

Money and business

Idiom	Meaning
to make both ends meet	to earn just enough to live
to be in the red	to owe money, in debt
to be in the black	to have money, in profit
to cost an arm and a leg	to be very expensive
a windfall	a sudden gain
to feather one's nest	to enrich oneself
the lion's share	the largest part
to pay through the nose	to pay too much
as poor as a church mouse	extremely poor
to live from hand to mouth	to spend all one earns, barely surviving
a golden handshake	a large payment at retirement or dismissal
a white elephant	a costly but useless possession
to break the bank	to cost too much
to have deep pockets	to be wealthy
to cut corners	to do something cheaply or badly

Part 5 of 6

Synonyms & Antonyms

Last reviewed 30 Sept 2026 · 8 min read

What is being tested

A synonym is a word with almost the same meaning as another (big – large).
An antonym is a word with the opposite meaning (big – small).

Most questions give a word (sometimes inside a sentence, with the word in bold or underlined) and four options. Words rarely have exactly the same meaning; the exam wants the option that is closest in the given context.

Method

FormulaHow to answer

Read the sentence (if there is one) and decide the meaning in context — many words have more than one sense (bank, fine, light, pen).
Note the tone: positive (praise, generous, resolute), negative (stingy, obstinate) or neutral.
Guess the meaning before looking at the options.
Break the word into prefix, root and suffix if it is unknown.
Eliminate options with the wrong tone or the wrong part of speech.
For antonyms, watch out for a synonym trap — an option that means the same as the given word is never the answer to an antonym question.

Word building

Common prefixes

Prefix	Meaning	Examples
un-, in-, im-, il-, ir-, dis-, non-	not / opposite	unhappy, incorrect, impossible, illegal, irregular, dislike, nonsense
anti-, counter-, contra-	against	antidote, counteract, contradict
pre-, ante-, fore-	before	prehistoric, antecedent, foresee
post-, retro-	after / back	postpone, retrospect
sub-, under-, infra-	below	submarine, undergo, infrastructure
super-, over-, hyper-, ultra-	above / excess	superior, overwork, hyperactive, ultramodern
mis-, mal-	wrong / bad	misuse, malfunction, malnutrition
bi-, di-, tri-, multi-, poly-, mono-	number	bicycle, dilemma, triangle, multiple, polygon, monopoly
inter-, intra-, trans-	between / within / across	international, intramural, transport
auto-, bio-, geo-, hydro-, tele-, photo-	self / life / earth / water / far / light	autograph, biology, geology, hydropower, telescope, photograph

Common roots

bene (good): benefit, benevolent · mal (bad): malice, malevolent · dict (say): dictate, predict · scrib/script (write): describe, script · spect (look): inspect, spectator · port (carry): transport, portable · vert/vers (turn): convert, reverse · cred (believe): credible, incredible · chron (time): chronology, chronic · pathy (feeling): sympathy, apathy · phobia (fear), philia (love).

Frequently tested words

The lists below give common exam words with a close synonym and an antonym. Learn them in groups, not one at a time.

Positive words

Word	Synonym	Antonym
abundant	plentiful	scarce
benevolent	kind	malevolent
candid	frank	evasive
diligent	hard-working	lazy / idle
eloquent	fluent	inarticulate
frugal	thrifty	extravagant
generous	liberal	stingy
humble	modest	arrogant
jovial	cheerful	gloomy
lucid	clear	obscure
meticulous	careful	careless
optimistic	hopeful	pessimistic
prudent	wise	reckless
resilient	flexible	fragile
serene	calm	agitated
tenacious	persistent	yielding
valiant	brave	cowardly
zealous	enthusiastic	apathetic

Negative words

Word	Synonym	Antonym
arrogant	haughty	humble
callous	heartless	compassionate
deceitful	dishonest	honest
feeble	weak	strong
futile	useless	fruitful
hostile	unfriendly	friendly
idle	lazy	busy
malicious	spiteful	benevolent
obstinate	stubborn	flexible
reckless	careless	cautious
timid	shy	bold
vague	unclear	precise
wicked	evil	virtuous

Neutral or general words

Word	Synonym	Antonym
ancient	old	modern
brief	short	lengthy
complex	complicated	simple
conceal	hide	reveal
create	make	destroy
depart	leave	arrive
expand	enlarge	contract
genuine	real	fake
hasten	hurry	delay
import	bring in	export
inferior	lower	superior
major	main	minor
necessary	essential	unnecessary
permanent	lasting	temporary
rapid	fast	slow
scarce	rare	plentiful
transparent	clear	opaque
victory	triumph	defeat
voluntary	willing	compulsory

Higher-level exam words

Word	Meaning / synonym	Antonym
ambiguous	unclear	clear
ameliorate	improve	worsen
augment	increase	reduce
austere	severe / plain	luxurious
candour	frankness	deceit
coerce	force	persuade
corroborate	confirm	contradict
cursory	hasty	thorough
diffident	shy	confident
ephemeral	short-lived	permanent
gregarious	sociable	solitary
impeccable	flawless	faulty
innocuous	harmless	harmful
laconic	brief	wordy
mitigate	reduce	aggravate
obsolete	outdated	current
pragmatic	practical	idealistic
quell	suppress	encourage
redundant	unnecessary	essential
sporadic	occasional	frequent
ubiquitous	omnipresent	rare
verbose	wordy	concise
zenith	peak	nadir

Near-synonyms and shades of meaning

Some words are close but not identical.

Words	Difference
brave / rash	brave = courageous with judgement; rash = careless
thrifty / stingy	thrifty = careful with money (positive); stingy = unwilling to spend (negative)
confident / arrogant	confident = sure of oneself; arrogant = overbearing
childlike / childish	childlike = innocent (positive); childish = immature (negative)
famous / notorious	famous for good; notorious for bad
firm / stubborn	firm = resolute; stubborn = unreasonably fixed
curious / nosy	curious = eager to know; nosy = interfering
slim / skinny	slim = attractively thin; skinny = too thin

Word forms to remember (often used in antonym options)

Antonym through a prefix: possible → impossible, legal → illegal, regular → irregular, honest → dishonest, mortal → immortal, visible → invisible, ability → inability, agree → disagree.
Opposite words with no shared form: victory – defeat, love – hatred, hope – despair, expand – contract, wisdom – folly, accept – reject, praise – criticise, guilty – innocent, rural – urban, vertical – horizontal.

Worked ExampleExample 1 — synonym in context

The manager gave a candid opinion about the plan. Candid means: (a) rude (b) frank (c) hesitant (d) secret

Solution. Candid = honest and open → frank (b).

Worked ExampleExample 2 — antonym

FRUGAL (a) thrifty (b) extravagant (c) careful (d) economical

Solution. (a), (c) and (d) are synonyms. The antonym is extravagant (b).

Worked ExampleExample 3 — a word with two meanings

The fine for parking here is heavy. — In this sentence fine means a penalty (noun); its antonym-like idea would be reward. In fine weather, it means good — opposite bad. Always check the part of speech and the context.

Worked ExampleExample 4 — from the prefix

IMPECCABLE — from im (not) + peccare (to sin/err). It means faultless; the antonym is faulty.

Common mistakes

Choosing a synonym in an antonym question (or the reverse) — read the question line twice.
Ignoring context — the word may be used in a less common meaning.
Picking a word with the right meaning but the wrong tone (e.g., stingy for thrifty).
Ignoring the part of speech — a noun should be matched with a noun.
Skipping unknown words — use prefixes, roots and the sentence to guess.

How to build vocabulary

Read editorials and note the new words with their sentences.
Learn words in groups (all words meaning brave, lazy, increase).
Learn synonym and antonym together — each pair is one memory.
Revise the lists regularly; use each new word in your own sentence.

Revision SummarySummary

Decide the meaning in context, note the tone and the part of speech.
Use prefixes, roots and suffixes to guess unknown words.
In an antonym question, a synonym among the options is a trap.
Learn words in groups (positive, negative, neutral) along with both synonym and antonym.
Watch for near-synonyms with different tones (thrifty/stingy, famous/notorious).

Part 6 of 6

Para Jumbles & Paragraph Completion

Last reviewed 30 Sept 2026 · 6 min read

What the question asks

In a para jumble you get four to six sentences (labelled A, B, C, D, E ...) in scrambled order and must arrange them into a logical, coherent paragraph. Options give possible sequences (for example BADC, DABC). Some formats fix the first and last sentences (S1 and S6) and ask for the middle order.

A good paragraph has an opening, a development, and a conclusion, and the sentences are linked by meaning, pronouns and connectors.

Method

FormulaA step-by-step method

Read all the sentences once to understand the topic.
Find the opening sentence: it introduces the topic, is self-contained, and does not begin with a pronoun (he, she, it, they, this, these) without a referent, or a connector (but, however, so, therefore).
Find mandatory pairs (two sentences that must be together) using clues (below).
Find the closing sentence: a conclusion, a result, a summary or an idea that "closes" the topic.
Arrange the pairs and test the whole sequence by reading it aloud.
Eliminate options that separate a mandatory pair or begin with the wrong sentence.

Clues that link sentences

1. Pronouns and references

A pronoun needs a noun before it. A sentence with he/she/it/they/this/that/these comes after the sentence that names the person or thing.

A. Ramanujan was born in 1887 in Erode. B. He showed a remarkable talent for mathematics early in life. → A → B.

2. Articles: a/an → the

The first mention of a thing uses a/an; later mentions use the.

A. A committee was formed to study the problem. B. The committee submitted its report in June. → A → B.

3. Connectors and transitions

Connector	Position
however, but, yet, on the other hand	contrasts with the previous sentence; never first
therefore, thus, hence, so, as a result	result of what came before
moreover, also, in addition, furthermore	adds to a previous idea
for example, for instance	follows a general statement
first, second, finally, then, next, afterwards	shows sequence
in conclusion, in short, overall	closes the paragraph
meanwhile, at the same time	parallel event

4. Chronological order

Arrange events in time order: born → educated → began a career → achieved something → died. Years and dates help.

5. General to specific (or specific to general)

Most paragraphs begin with a general idea or statement and then move to details, examples, causes and effects.

6. Cause and effect / problem and solution

Problem → cause → effect → solution is a very common order.

7. Question and answer

A question sentence is followed by its answer.

8. Keywords and repeated ideas

A word or idea in the end of one sentence is often picked up at the beginning of the next.

9. Demonstratives that sum up the previous idea

This situation, this trend, such a step, these measures refer back to the previous sentence.

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