Last reviewed 16 Sept 2026 · Facts as of 16 Sept 2026 · 11 min read
Why safety matters
| Reason | Explanation |
|---|---|
| Human (moral) | Protect life, health and dignity of workers and the public |
| Legal | Statutory duties of employers, engineers and organisations; penalties and liability |
| Economic | Accidents cause medical costs, compensation, lost productivity, damage, delays, higher insurance — hidden costs often exceed direct costs (iceberg effect) |
| Social and reputational | Public trust, employee morale, brand and contract eligibility |
| Operational | Safe operations are more reliable and productive |
Key concepts
| Term | Meaning |
|---|---|
| Hazard | Anything with potential to cause harm (working at height, live wires, toxic chemicals) |
| Risk | Likelihood of harm occurring × severity of the harm |
| Incident | Unplanned event that caused or could have caused harm |
| Accident | Incident resulting in injury, illness, damage or loss |
| Near miss | Incident with no injury or damage but potential for it — valuable warning |
| Unsafe act | Human behaviour creating risk (not using PPE, bypassing guards) |
| Unsafe condition | Hazardous physical state (unguarded openings, defective equipment) |
| Safety culture | Shared values and behaviours prioritising safety at all levels |
| ALARP | Reduce risk to As Low As Reasonably Practicable |
Accident causation models
- Heinrich's domino theory — accidents result from a chain; removing unsafe acts/conditions breaks the chain; accident pyramid (roughly 1 major injury : 29 minor : 300 no-injury incidents).
- Swiss cheese model (James Reason) — multiple defensive layers each have "holes" (latent conditions and active failures); accidents occur when holes align.
- Systems approach — organisational factors, management decisions, design and environment contribute, not just individual errors.
Risk assessment
- Identify hazards (inspections, job analysis, incident records, worker input).
- Identify who may be harmed and how.
- Evaluate risk — likelihood and severity (risk matrix).
- Decide controls using the hierarchy of controls.
- Record, implement, communicate.
- Review and update regularly and after changes/incidents.
FormulaRisk matrix scoring
(e.g. each on a 1–5 scale → 1–25; high scores require immediate action)
Hierarchy of controls (most → least effective)
- Elimination — remove the hazard (e.g. design to avoid working at height).
- Substitution — replace with less hazardous (water-based paints instead of solvent-based).
- Engineering controls — isolate people from hazards (guardrails, machine guards, ventilation, interlocks, ELCB/RCD).
- Administrative controls — procedures, training, permits-to-work, signage, rotation, supervision.
- Personal protective equipment (PPE) — helmets, harnesses, gloves, goggles, respirators, ear protection (last line of defence).
Hazard analysis techniques
| Technique | Description |
|---|---|
| Job Safety Analysis (JSA) / Job Hazard Analysis | Break a task into steps, identify hazards and controls for each |
| HAZOP (Hazard and Operability Study) | Systematic team review of process deviations using guide words (no, more, less, reverse…) — chemical/process plants, water treatment |
| FMEA | Failure modes, effects and risk priority numbers |
| Fault Tree Analysis (FTA) | Top-down logic diagram (AND/OR gates) from an undesired event to root causes |
| Event Tree Analysis | Forward analysis of outcomes after an initiating event |
| What-if analysis / checklists | Structured questioning |
| Bow-tie analysis | Causes, top event, consequences with preventive and mitigative barriers |
Safety in engineering sectors
| Sector | Major hazards | Key controls |
|---|---|---|
| Construction | Falls from height, falling objects, excavation collapse, machinery, electrocution, formwork/scaffold failure, crane accidents | Guardrails, safety nets, harnesses, shoring, certified scaffolds, lifting plans, barricading, toolbox talks, PPE (see Construction Safety, Labour Laws & Welfare) |
| Industrial/manufacturing | Moving machinery, noise, hot surfaces, chemicals | Machine guarding, lockout–tagout (LOTO), ventilation, maintenance |
| Process safety (chemicals, refineries) | Fires, explosions, toxic releases | Process safety management, HAZOP, pressure relief, interlocks, emergency shutdown, inventory reduction, siting |
| Electrical | Shock, arc flash, fires | Earthing, RCDs, insulation, isolation, LOTO, competent persons, clearance from overhead lines |
| Fire safety | Combustible materials, electrical faults | Fire-resistant construction, compartmentation, detection and alarm, sprinklers, extinguishers, means of escape, fire drills, fire NOCs |
| Laboratory | Chemicals, high voltage, heavy testing machines, radiation | SOPs, fume hoods, guards, PPE, storage and labelling (safety data sheets) |
| Transport and road safety | Crashes, work zone hazards | Road safety audits, geometric design, signage, crash barriers, traffic management at work zones, speed control, enforcement |
| Radiation | Ionising radiation in radiography, nuclear gauges | Time, distance, shielding; licensing; dosimetry |
| Mining and tunnelling | Rock falls, gases, flooding, ventilation | Support systems, gas monitoring, ventilation, rescue plans |
Occupational health and ergonomics
- Occupational diseases — silicosis (silica dust — stone cutting, sandblasting), asbestosis, noise-induced hearing loss, lead poisoning, dermatitis (cement), musculoskeletal disorders, heat stress.
- Ergonomics — fitting work to workers: proper lifting techniques and mechanical aids, workstation design, rest breaks, heat stress management (hydration, shaded rest, work–rest cycles).
- Health surveillance — medical examinations, exposure monitoring.
Emergency preparedness and disaster management
- Emergency response plan — alarms, evacuation routes and assembly points, first aid, fire fighting, communication with authorities, drills.
- Disaster management cycle — mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery.
- Disaster Management Act, 2005 — established the National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA) chaired by the Prime Minister, State and District Disaster Management Authorities, NDRF (National Disaster Response Force) and NIDM.
- Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction (2015–2030) — international framework for reducing disaster risk.
Safety management systems
- Elements: safety policy and leadership commitment, organisation and responsibilities, hazard identification and risk assessment, legal compliance, objectives, training and competence, communication and consultation, operational controls, contractor management, emergency preparedness, incident investigation, monitoring and audits, management review and continual improvement.
- ISO 45001 — international standard for occupational health and safety management systems (replaced OHSAS 18001), following the PDCA structure.
Safety regulations and institutions in India
| Law / regulation | Key provisions |
|---|---|
| Constitution | Directive Principles — Article 39(e) (health and strength of workers not abused), Article 42 (just and humane conditions of work) |
| Occupational Safety, Health and Working Conditions Code, 2020 (OSH Code) | Consolidates earlier laws including the Factories Act 1948, BOCW Act 1996, Mines Act 1952, Contract Labour Act 1970, Dock Workers Act and others — safety committees, health, working conditions, welfare facilities, registration and inspections; the four labour codes were brought into effect in November 2025 with rules being notified |
| Factories Act, 1948 (historically) | Safety provisions (fencing of machinery, work on or near machinery in motion, hoists and lifts, pressure plant, excessive weights), health and welfare, working hours |
| Building and Other Construction Workers Act, 1996 (historically) and Central Rules | Safety committees and officers, scaffolding, excavation, lifting appliances, PPE for construction |
| Employees' Compensation Act, 1923 (subsumed in Code on Social Security, 2020) | Compensation for work injuries |
| Electricity Act, 2003 and CEA (Measures relating to Safety and Electric Supply) Regulations | Electrical installation and operational safety |
| Indian Boiler Regulations | Boiler design, registration and inspection |
| Fire safety | State fire services acts and building bye-laws; National Building Code (fire and life safety provisions), fire NOCs |
| Explosives Act, 1884 and rules | Storage and use of explosives (quarrying, tunnelling) |
| Atomic Energy Act, 1962 and AERB | Radiation safety — licensing of radiography sources and nuclear gauges |
| Public Liability Insurance Act, 1991 | Immediate relief to victims of accidents involving hazardous substances |
| Chemical Accidents (Emergency Planning, Preparedness and Response) Rules, 1996 | Under the Environment Protection Act — emergency planning for hazardous chemical units |
| Motor Vehicles (Amendment) Act, 2019 | Stricter penalties, road safety measures, protection for Good Samaritans |
| Disaster Management Act, 2005 | NDMA, SDMA, DDMA, NDRF |
| Bureau of Indian Standards | Safety codes (e.g. SP 70 — construction safety handbook; IS 3696 — scaffolds and ladders; IS 7969 — handling and storage of building materials) |
Institutions: Directorate General of Factory Advice Service and Labour Institutes (DGFASLI), Directorate General of Mines Safety (DGMS), state inspectorates of factories and boilers, NDMA, AERB, National Safety Council of India.